Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD, is a U.S. board-certified Anatomic Pathologist with subspecialty training in the fields of Experimental and Molecular Pathology. Dr. Stöppler's educational background includes a BA with Highest Distinction from the University of Virginia and an MD from the University of North Carolina. She completed residency training in Anatomic Pathology at Georgetown University followed by subspecialty fellowship training in molecular diagnostics and experimental pathology.
Dr. Shiel received a Bachelor of Science degree with honors from the University of Notre Dame. There he was involved in research in radiation biology and received the Huisking Scholarship. After graduating from St. Louis University School of Medicine, he completed his Internal Medicine residency and Rheumatology fellowship at the University of California, Irvine. He is board-certified in Internal Medicine and Rheumatology.
Hepatitis B is liver inflammation (hepatitis) that is
caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). HBV is one of several viruses that cause
viral hepatitis. Most individuals that are infected with HBV recover from the
acute phase of the hepatitis B infection, which refers to the initial rapid
onset and short course of the disease. These persons develop immunity to the
HBV, which protects them from future infection with this virus. Still,
approximately 5% of individuals infected with HBV will develop chronic or
long-lasting liver disease. These
persons are potentially infectious to others. Moreover, patients with chronic
hepatitis B are at risk for developing, over many years, severe and complicated
liver disease, liver failure, and liver cancer. These complications at times
lead to the necessity of a liver transplant.
Hepatitis B is transmitted in ways that are similar to the spread of HIV.
These modes of transmission are primarily through sexual contact, exposure to
contaminated blood, such as from sharing needles, or from infected pregnant
women to their newborns. Only 50% of acute hepatitis B infections produce
recognizable symptoms.
How can hepatitis B infection be prevented?
A highly effective vaccine that prevents hepatitis B is
currently available. It is recommended that all babies be vaccinated against HBV
beginning at birth, and all children under the age of 18 who have not been
vaccinated should also receive the vaccination. Among adults, anyone who wishes
to do so may receive the vaccine, and it is recommended especially for anyone
whose behavior or lifestyle may pose a risk of HBV infection. Examples of
at-risk groups include:
sexually active men and women;
illegal drug
users;
health-care workers;
recipients of certain blood products;
household and sexual contacts of persons known to be chronically infected with
hepatitis B;
adoptees from countries in which hepatitis B is common, such as
Southeast Asia;
The
vaccine is given as a series of three injections in the muscle tissue of the
shoulder. The second dose is administered one month after the first dose and the
third dose is given 5 months after the second dose. In the event that a
non-immunized individual (who would not have protective antibodies against HBV)
is exposed to the genital secretions or blood of an infected person, the exposed
person should receive purified hepatitis B immunoglobulin antibodies (HBIG) and initiate the
vaccine series.
How is hepatitis B infection diagnosed?
The diagnosis of hepatitis B is made by blood tests for
the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg, the outer coat of the virus), hepatitis B surface
antibody (HBsAb), and hepatitis B core antibody (HBcAb). If the HBsAb antibodies
are in the blood, their presence indicates that the person has been exposed to
the virus and is immune to future infection. Furthermore, this person cannot
transmit the virus to others or develop liver disease from the infection. The
HBcAb antibodies identify both past and current infection with the HBV. If the
HbsAg antigen is in the blood, the person is infectious to others. There are
also two possible interpretations to the presence of this antigen. In one, the
person has been recently infected with HBV, may have acute viral B hepatitis,
and will develop immunity in the coming months. In the other interpretation, the
person is chronically infected with HBV, may have chronic hepatitis, and is at
risk for developing the complications of chronic liver disease.
Scabies are itch mites that burrow under the skin and produce intense itching that's usually worse at night. Symptoms of scabies are small bumps and blisters on the wrists, knees, between the fingers, on the back of the elbows, in the groin and on the buttocks. Treatment involves applying a mite-killing cream, antihistamines for itch relief, washing bedclothes and linens.
Lymph nodes help the body's immune system fight infections. Causes of swollen lymph nodes (glands) may include infection (viral, bacterial, fungal, parasites). Symptoms of swollen lymph nodes vary greatly. They can sometimes be tender, painful or disfiguring. The treatment of swollen lymph nodes depends upon the cause.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the cause of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). HIV is a type of virus called a retrovirus, which infects humans when it comes in contact with a break in the skin or tissues such as those that line the vagina, anal area, mouth, or eyes.
Genital herpes, a viral infection by the herpes simplex virus (HSV), is transmitted during sexual contact with the mucous-covered linings of the mouth, vagina, or the genital skin. A typical outbreak begins with an itching or tingling sensation followed by redness of the skin and blister formation. The blisters and ulcers that form when the blisters break are painful to the touch, and last from 7 days to 2 weeks. Though there is no cure for herpes, there are ways to treat outbreaks.
Hepatitis C is an inflammation of the liver due to the hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is usually spread by
blood transfusion, hemodialysis, and needle sticks, especially with intravenous
drug abuse. Chronic hepatitis C may be treated with interferon, usually in combination with anti-virals.
Prostatitis is a painful condition of the prostate gland. There are four types of prostatitis, acute bacterial, chronic bacterial, chronic pelvic pain syndrome, and asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis. Diagnosis is made with a digital rectal exam, urinalysis, ultrasound, MRI, biopsy, or blood test. Treatment depends upon the type of prostatitis.
Chlamydia, a type of bacteria that causes an infection, is spread through sexual contact. Most of the time, women with chlamydia have no symptoms. Antibiotics are an effective treatment for chlamydia.
Sexually transmitted diseases, or STDs,
are infections that are transmitted during any type of sexual exposure,
including intercourse (vaginal or anal), oral sex, and the sharing of sexual
devices, such as vibrators. Women can contract all of the STDs, but may have no symptoms, or have different symptoms than men do.
Abdominal aortic aneurysm is a ballooning or widening of the main artery (the aorta) as it courses down through the abdomen. The most common cause of aortic aneurysms is
"hardening of the arteries" called arteriosclerosis.
Dementia is a significant loss of intellectual abilities such as memory capacity, severe enough to interfere with social or occupational functioning. There are different criteria classification schemes for dementias such as cortical, subcortical, progressive, primary, and secondary dementias. Other conditions and medication reactions can also cause dementia. Dementia is diagnosed based on a certain set of criteria. Treatment for dementia is generally focused on the symptoms of the disease.
The hepatitis B virus is a unique, coated DNA virus belonging to the Hepadnaviridae family of viruses. The course of the virus is determined primarily by the age at which the infection is acquired and the interaction between the virus and the body's immune system. Successful treatment is associated with a reduction in liver injury and fibrosis (scarring), a decreased likelihood of developing cirrhosis and its complications, including liver cancer, and a prolonged survival.
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is the most common and serious complication of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), aside from AIDS, among women. The signs and symptoms of pelvic inflammatory disease include: fever, vaginal discharge with a foul odor, abdominal pain, including pain during intercourse, and irregular vaginal bleeding. Pelvic inflammatory disease can scar the Fallopian tubes, ovaries, and related structures and lead to ectopic pregnancies, infertility, chronic pelvic pain, and other serious consequences. Pelvic inflammatory disease treatment includes several types of antibiotics.
Cervical dysplasia is a condition in which the cells of the inner lining of the cervix have precancerous changes. There are two types of cervical dysplasia; 1) squamous intraepithelial lesion, and 2) cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Cervical dysplasia is caused by infection of the cervix with HPV (human papillomavirus). There are various diagnostic measures for cervical dysplasia. Treatment generally depends upon the progression of the dysplasia, mild, moderate, or severe.
E. coli is the most common cause of bladder infections. Bladder infection symptoms and signs include frequent urination, burning urination, and foul smelling urine. Mild bladder infections may go away by increasing one's intake of fluid. More severe infections may be treated with a few days of antibiotics.
Blood in semen is also known as hematospermia. Blood in semen can be caused by many conditions affecting the tubes that distribute semen from the testicles (seminal vesicles) or the prostate gland. Symptoms that may accompany blood in semen include blood in the urine, fever, painful urination, pain with ejaculation, tenderness, and swelling in the testes or groin area. Urinalysis, ultrasound, and MRI may be used to diagnose blood in the semen. Treatment depends upon the underlying cause of blood in the semen.
Testicular pain, or pain in the testicle or testicles are caused by a variety of diseases or conditions such as testicular trauma, testicular torsion, testicular cancer, epididymitis, and orchitis. Common symptoms of pain in the testicle or testicles are abdominal pain, urinary pain or incontinence, fever, nausea, vomiting, and pain in the scrotum or testicle. Treatment depends on the cause of the testicular pain or pain in the testicles.
Anal cancer, cancer located at the end of the large intestine, has symptoms that include anal or rectal bleeding, anal pain or pressure, anal discharge or itching, a change in bowel movements, and/or a lump in the anal region. Treatment for anal cancer may involve radiation, chemotherapy, or surgery and depends upon the stage of the cancer, its location, whether cancer is eradicated after the first treatment, and whether the patient has HIV.
Pubic lice (crabs) are parasitic insects found in the genital area, and are primarily spread through sexual contact. Symptoms of crabs include itching and visible nits (lice eggs) and crawling lice. Treatment includes using lice-killing shampoo and washing bedding and clothing in hot water.
Trichomoniasis is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by a parasite passed from person to person. Trichomoniasis can be picked up from contact with damp, moist objects like towels, wet clothing, or toilet seat. Symptoms include yellow, green, or gray vaginal discharge with a strong odor, painful intercourse or urination, genital irritation and itching, and lower abdominal pain. Medication is the only treatment for trichomoniasis.
The time when boys and girls begin the process of sexual maturation is called puberty. During this time, both sexes undergo a series of biological changes that include a rapid increase in height, bone growth, weight increase, the growth of pubic hair, breast development and the onset of menstruation in girls, and testicle, penis, and muscle enlargement in boys.
Reactive arthritis is a chronic, systemic rheumatic disease characterized by three conditions, including conjunctivitis, joint inflammation, and genital, urinary or gastrointestinal system inflammation. Inflammation leads to pain, swelling, warmth, redness, and stiffness of the affected joints. Non-joint areas may experience irritation and pain. Treatment for reactive arthritis depends on which area of the body is affected. Joint inflammation is treated with antiinflammatory medications.
The HPV virus (genital warts) in men can cause health problems. Genital warts are confined primarily to the moist skin of the genitals or around the anus. Genital warts are caused by the human papillomaviruses (HPVs), which are transmitted through sexual contact.
Aortic dissection is a small tear in the large blood vessel that leads from the heart and supplies blood to the body. There are two types of aortic dissection, type 1 and type 2. Signs and symptoms of aortic dissection include a tearing or ripping pain, nausea, sweating, weakness, shortness of breath, sweating, or fainting. Treatment depends on the type of aortic dissection, and the severity of the tear in the aorta.
Abdominal adhesions (scar tissue) bands of scar tissue that form between abdominal organs and tissues. Symptoms of abdominal adhesions are pelvic or abdominal pain. Abdominal adhesions on the intestines can cause bowel obstruction, which is a medical emergency. Treatment for abdominal adhesions is generally surgery to cut the adhesions away from the internal tissues and organs. There is no way to prevent abdominal adhesions.
Enjoying a satisfying sex life as we age is important to both physical and mental health. As we age, diseases and conditions may pose challenges in our sexual health, and sexual experiences. Learn how to manage your conditions and still have a gratifying sex life as you age.
Sexual health information including birth control, impotence, herpes, sexually transmitted diseases, staying healthy, women's sexual health concerns, and men's sexual health concerns. Learn about the most common sexual conditions affecting men and women.
A urethral stricture, or narrowing of the urethra, may cause decreased urine output. Symptoms include painful urination, urinary retention, and pelvic pain. Surgery is the only treatment for people with uncontrolled symptoms of urethral narrowing.
AIDS is the advanced stage of HIV infection. Symptoms and signs of AIDS include pneumonia due to Pneumocystis jiroveci, tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, seizures, weakness, meningitis, yeast infection of the esophagus, and Kaposi's sarcoma. Anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) is used in the treatment of AIDS.
Drug resistance (antimicrobial resistance) is the ability of bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses to grow, even in the presence of a drug that would normally kill it (or limit it's growth). Drug resistance is a growing problem, particularly for infections such as MRSA, VRE (vancomycin-resistant enterococci), tuberculosis, HIV, STDs, gonorrhea, flu, pneumonia, malaria, E. coli, salmonella, Campylobacter, which causes diarrhea and gastroenteritis. Learn how to protect yourself from resistance to drugs.
Sexual Health RSS
Healthy Living Tips
