Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD, is a U.S. board-certified Anatomic Pathologist with subspecialty training in the fields of Experimental and Molecular Pathology. Dr. Stöppler's educational background includes a BA with Highest Distinction from the University of Virginia and an MD from the University of North Carolina. She completed residency training in Anatomic Pathology at Georgetown University followed by subspecialty fellowship training in molecular diagnostics and experimental pathology.
Dr. Lee was born in Shanghai, China, and received his college and medical training in the United States. He is fluent in English and three Chinese dialects. He graduated with chemistry departmental honors from Harvey Mudd College. He was appointed president of AOA society at UCLA School of Medicine. He underwent internal medicine residency and gastroenterology fellowship training at Cedars Sinai Medical Center.
Dr. Kulick received his undergraduate and medical degrees from the University of Southern California, School of Medicine. He performed his residency in internal medicine at the Harbor-University of California Los Angeles Medical Center and a fellowship in the section of cardiology at the Los Angeles County-University of Southern California Medical Center. He is board certified in Internal Medicine and Cardiology.
While lifestyle changes may be enough treatment for some
people with peripheral artery disease, others may require medication. Examples of medications used in
treating peripheral artery disease include anti-platelet or anti-clotting agents, cholesterol-lowering
drugs such as statins, medications that increase blood supply to the extremities such as
cilostazol (Petal) and pentoxifylline
(Trental), and medications that control
high blood pressure.
Antiplatelet medications
[such as aspirin and clopidogrel
(Plavix)]
make the blood platelets less likely to stick to one another to form blood
clots. Low dose aspirin (81-325 mg/day) is usually prescribed indefinitely
because it is also helpful in preventing strokes and heart attacks in
patients with peripheral artery disease. Clopidogrel (Plavix) is an
alternative to aspirin for those who are allergic or cannot tolerate
aspirin. Anti-platelet medications also help prevent occlusion of blood
vessels after angioplasty or bypass surgery.
Anticoagulant
medications act to prevent blood clotting. Both heparin and
warfarin
(Coumadin) are anticoagulant medications. Anticoagulants are sometimes
prescribed for people with peripheral artery disease if they are at increased risk for formation of
blood clots; these agents are used much less frequently than anti platelet agents in patients with PAD.
Cholesterol-lowering drugs
of the statin family have been shown in numerous large clinical trials to help
prevent heart attacks and strokes and prolong survival among patients with
atherosclerosis. Statins have also been shown to slow the progression of
peripheral artery disease,
decrease arthrosclerosis in the arteries, and improve claudication symptoms.
Current NCEP recommendations for patients with peripheral artery disease are to use diet and
medications (such as statins) to lower LDL cholesterol to below 100 mg/dl.
Many doctors are now recommending lowering LDL cholesterol even further for
patients with peripheral artery disease to below 75-80 mg/dl.
Cilostazol (Pletal) is a
mediation that can help increase physical activity (enabling one to walk a
greater distance without the pain of claudication).
Cilostazol works by
causing dilation of the arteries and an increased supply of oxygenated blood
to be delivered to the arms and legs. Cilostazol is recommended for some patients
with claudication when lifestyle modifications and exercise are ineffective.
Cilostazol should be taken on an empty stomach either a half an hour before or two
hours after meals. High fat meals, grapefruit juice, and certain medications
such as omeprazole (Prilosec) and
diltiazem (Cardizem) can increase the absorption and hence the blood
levels of Cilostazol. Side effects are generally mild that include
headache,
diarrhea and dizziness. Cilostazol should not be used in patients with heart
failure because of concern over increased
mortality in heart failure
patients using medications similar to Cilostazol.
Pentoxifylline (Pentoxyl, Trental) was designed and approved to improve blood flow to the extremities by decreasing the viscosity ("stickiness") of blood, enabling more efficient blood flow.
Pentoxifylline, in
clinical trials, improved walking distance, but its benefits are weaker than
those of Cilostazol and have not been conclusively proved by all studies.
Drugs to control hypertension may also be prescribed. There was concern that
beta blockers
used to treat hypertension can aggravate claudication. But recent studies have
not found any adverse effects of beta-blockers on symptoms of patients with
peripheral artery disease. Therefore current recommendations are to treat
hypertension in patients with peripheral artery disease to prevent strokes
and heart attacks.
Kidney failure can occur from an acute event or a chronic condition or disease. Prerenal kidney failure is caused by blood loss, dehydration, medication. Some of the renal causes of kidney failure are from sepsis, medications, rhabdomyolysis, multiple myeloma, and acute glomerulonephritis. Post renal causes of kidney failure include bladder obstruction, prostate problems, tumors, or kidney stones. Treatment options included diet, medications, or dialysis.
Muscle cramps are involuntarily and forcibly contracted muscles that do not relax. Extremely common, any muscles that have voluntary control, including some organs, are subject to cramp. Since there is such variety in the types of muscle cramps that can occur, many causes and preventative medications are known. Stretching is the most common way to stop or prevent most muscle cramps.
Blood clots can occur in the venous and arterial vascular system. Blood clots can form in the heart, legs, arteries, veins, bladder, urinary tract and uterus. Risk factors for blood clots include high blood pressure and cholesterol, diabetes, smoking, and family history. Symptoms of a blood clot depend on the location of the clot. Some blood clots are a medical emergency. Blood clots are treated depending upon the cause of the clot. Blood clots can be prevented by lowering the risk factors for developing blood clots.
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic condition characterized by high levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood. The two types of diabetes are referred to as type 1 (insulin dependent) and type 2 (non-insulin dependent). Symptoms of diabetes include increased urine output, thirst, hunger, and fatigue. Treatment of diabetes depends on the type.
Cholesterol is naturally produced by the body, and is a building block for cell membranes and hormones. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is the "bad" cholesterol, conversely, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol is the "good" cholesterol. High cholesterol treatment includes lifestyle changes (diet and exercise), and medications such as statins, bile acid resins, and fibric acid derivatives.
Corns and calluses are sometimes painful areas of thickened skin that appear between the toes and fingers or on the soles of the feet. Abnormal foot anatomy, ill-fitting footwear, and unusual gait can put increased pressure in specific areas, causing corns and calluses. Treatment may involve using over-the-counter salicylic-acid products, visiting a podiatrist to be fitted with an orthotic device, or surgical removal.
Insulin resistance is the diminished ability of cells to respond to the action of insulin in transporting glucose (sugar) from the bloodstream into muscle and other tissues. Causes of insulin can include conditions such as stress, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and steroid use. Some of the risk factors for insulin resistance include fatty liver, heart disease, strokes, peripheral vascular disease, high cholesterol, and smoking. Treatment for insulin resistance are lifestyle changes and if necessary, medication.
Heart disease (coronary artery disease) is caused by a buildup of cholesterol deposits in the coronary arteries. Risk factors for heart disease include smoking, high blood pressure, heredity, diabetes, peripheral artery disease, and obesity. Symptoms include chest pain and shortness of breath. There are a variety of tests used to diagnose coronary artery disease. Treatment includes life-style changes, medications, procedures, or surgery.
The major goal in treating diabetes is controlling elevated blood sugar without causing abnormally low levels of blood sugar. Treatment for type 1 diabetes is with insulin, exercise, and a diabetic diet. Treatment for type 2 diabetes is first treated with weight reduction, a diabetic diet, and exercise. When these measures fail to control the elevated blood sugar, oral medications are used. If oral medications are still insufficient, insulin medications are considered.
Intermittent claudication, or pain and cramping in the lower leg is caused by inadequate blood flow to the leg muscles. This lack of blood flow causes a decrease in oxygen delivered to the muscles of the legs. Claudication is generally felt when walking and decreases with rest. In severe cases, claudication may be felt at rest. Narrowing of arteries cause claudication. Treatment includes exercise, medication, and in some cases surgery.
Aseptic necrosis (avascular necrosis or osteonecrosis) is a condition that develops when blood supply diminishes to an area of bone and causes bone death. Though aseptic necrosis may be painless, pain is often associated when the degenerating bone is used. If caught early, aseptic necrosis may be treated by grafting new bone into the degenerating area. In later stages, joint replacement surgery may be required.
Cholesterol is the most common type of steroid in the body. The treatment of elevated cholesterol involves not only diet but also weight loss, regular exercise, and medications. By understanding your cholesterol profile you can better manage your cholesterol levels.
Lymphedema is a condition in which one or more extremities become swollen as the result of an impaired flow of the lymphatic system. There are two types of lymphedema; primary, secondary. Filariasis is the most common cause of lymphedema worldwide; however, in the U.S. breast cancer surgery is the most common cause. Symptoms include swelling of one or more limbs, thickening, cracked, and secondary bacterial or fungal infections of the skin. There is no cure for lymphedema.
Diabetes-related foot problems can affect your health with two problems: diabetic neuropathy, where diabetes affects the nerves, and peripheral vascular disease, where diabetes affects the flow of blood. Common foot problems for people with diabetes include athlete's foot, fungal infection of nails, calluses, corns, blisters, bunions, dry skin, foot ulcers, hammertoes, ingrown toenails, and plantar warts.
Vitamins and exercise can lower your risk for heart attack and heart disease. Folic acid, vitamins, and homocysteine levels are interconnected and affect your risk for heart disease or heart attack. Antioxidants and exercise also play a key role in heart attack and heart disease prevention. Lower your risk factors for heart disease and heart attack by lowering cholesterol, lowering blood pressure, diabetes prevention, and smoking cesssation.
Heart RSS
Healthy Living Tips
This site complies with the