The following are health and medical definitions of terms that appear in the Osteoarthritis article.
Abnormal: Not normal. Deviating from the usual structure, position, condition, or behavior. In referring to a growth, abnormal may mean that it is cancerous or premalignant (likely to become cancer ). See the entire definition of Abnormal
Acetaminophen: A pain reliever and fever reducer. Brand name: Tylenol. The exact mechanism of action of acetaminophen is not known. Acetaminophen relieves pain by elevating the pain threshold (that is, by requiring a greater amount of pain to develop before it is felt by a person). Acetaminophen reduces fever through its action on the heat-regulating center (the "thermostat") of the brain. Generic is available.
Adjacent: Lying nearby. Related terms include superjacent, subjacent, and circumjacent. From ad-, near + the Latin jacere, to lie = to lie near.
Aging: The process of becoming older, a process that is genetically determined and environmentally modulated. See the entire definition of Aging
Arthrocentesis: Joint aspiration, a procedure whereby a sterile needle and syringe are used to drain fluid from a joint . This is usually done as an office procedure or at the bedside in the hospital. See the entire definition of Arthrocentesis
Arthroscope: A thin flexible fiberoptic scope which is introduced into a joint space through a small incision in order to carry out diagnostic and treatment procedures within the joint. An arthroscope is about the diameter of a drinking straw. It is fitted with a miniature camera, a light source and precision tools at the end of flexible tubes. An arthroscope can be used not only for diagnostic procedures but a wide range of surgical repairs, such as debridement, or cleaning, of a joint to remove bits of torn cartilage , ligament reconstruction, and synovectomy (removal of the joint lining). All are done without a major, invasive operation, and, since arthroscopy requires only tiny incisions, many procedures can be done on an outpatient basis with local anesthetic. See the entire definition of Arthroscope
Arthroscopic: Refers to a surgical technique whereby a doctor inserts a tube-like instrument into a joint to inspect, diagnose and repair tissues. It is most commonly performed in patients with diseases of the knees or shoulders. The word arthroscopic is often confused with orthoscopic. Orthoscopic means having correct vision or producing it. Orthoscopic, in other words, means free from optical distortion or designed to correct distorted vision. This fits with the prefix "ortho-", meaning straight or erect, and with "-scopic" from the Greek "skopein", to see. Orthoscopic literally is to see straight. Knee surgery performed with a small scope is arthroscopic knee surgery, not orthoscopic knee surgery.
Arthroscopy: A surgical technique whereby a tube-like instrument is inserted into a joint to inspect, diagnose and repair tissues. Arthroscopy is most commonly performed in patients with diseases of the knees or shoulders. The adjective "arthroscopic" is often confused with "orthoscopic." Orthoscopic means having correct vision or producing it; and free from optical distortion or designed to correct distorted vision. This fits with the prefix "ortho-", meaning straight or erect, and "-scopic" from the Greek "skopein", to see. Orthoscopic literally is to see straight. Knee surgery performed with a small scope is arthroscopic knee surgery, not orthoscopic knee surgery.
Aspirin: A good example of a tradename that entered into the language, Aspirin was once the Bayer trademark for acetylsalicylic acid . See the entire definition of Aspirin
Attention: The ability to focus selectively on a selected stimulus, sustaining that focus and shifting it at will. The ability to concentrate. See the entire definition of Attention
Blood: The familiar red fluid in the body that contains white and red blood cells, platelets, proteins, and other elements. The blood is transported throughout the body by the circulatory system. Blood functions in two directions: arterial and venous. Arterial blood is the means by which oxygen and nutrients are transported to tissues while venous blood is the means by which carbon dioxide and metabolic by-products are transported to the lungs and kidneys, respectively, for removal from the body.
Bone: Bone is the substance that forms the skeleton of the body. It is composed chiefly of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate . It also serves as a storage area for calcium, playing a large role in calcium balance in the blood. See the entire definition of Bone
Bunion: A bunion is a localized painful swelling at the base of the big toe (the great toe). The joint is enlarged (due to new bone formation) and the toe is often misaligned. It is frequently associated with inflammation. It can be related to inflammation of the nearby bursa ( bursitis ) or degenerative joint disease ( osteoarthritis ). See the entire definition of Bunion
Calcium: A mineral found mainly in the hard part of bones, where it is stored. Calcium is added to bones by cells called osteoblasts and is removed from bones by cells called osteoclasts. Calcium is essential for healthy bones. It is also important for muscle contraction, heart action, nervous system maintenance, and normal blood clotting. Food sources of calcium include dairy foods, some leafy green vegetables such as broccoli and collards, canned salmon, clams, oysters, calcium-fortified foods, and tofu. According to the National Academy of Sciences, adequate intake of calcium is 1,200 milligrams a day (four glasses of milk) for men and women 51 and older, 1,000 milligrams a day for adults 19 through 50, and 1,300 milligrams a day for children 9 through 18. The upper limit for calcium intake is 2.5 grams daily.
Capsaicin: A component of certain plants, including cayenne and red pepper, used topically to relieve minor arthritis pain and nerve pain. Capsaicin is in creams such as Arthricare and Zostrix that are applied to the skin . It appears to work by reducing a chemical substance found at nerve endings that is involved in transmitting pain signals to the brain . See the entire definition of Capsaicin
Cartilage: Firm, rubbery tissue that cushions bones at joints. A more flexible kind of cartilage connects muscles with bones and makes up other parts of the body, such as the larynx and the outside parts of the ears.
Chronic: This important term in medicine comes from the Greek chronos, time and means lasting a long time. See the entire definition of Chronic
Condition: The term "condition" has a number of biomedical meanings including the following:
An unhealthy state, such as in "this is a progressive condition."
A state of fitness, such as "getting into condition."
Something that is essential to the occurrence of something else; essentially a "precondition."
As a verb: to cause a change in something so that a response that was previously associated with a certain stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus; to condition a person, as in behavioral conditioning.
Congenital: Present at birth. A condition that is congenital is one that is present at birth. There are numerous uses of "congenital" in medicine. There are, for example, congenital abnormalities. (For more examples, see below.) See the entire definition of Congenital
Cortisone: An adrenocorticoid hormone , a naturally occurring hormone made by and secreted by the adrenal cortex , the outer part (the cortex ) of the adrenal gland . See the entire definition of Cortisone
Cox-2: Cyclooxygenase-2, a protein acts as an enzyme and specifically catalyzes (speeds) the production of certain chemical messengers called prostaglandins. Some of these messengers are responsible for promoting inflammation. When Cox-2 activity is blocked, inflammation is reduced. Unlike cox-1, cox-2 is active only at the site of inflammation, not in the stomach.
Degenerative arthritis: Also known as osteoarthritis, this type of arthritis is caused by inflammation, breakdown and eventual loss of the cartilage of the joints. Among the over 100 different types of arthritis conditions, osteoarthritis is the most common, affecting usually the hands, feet, spine, and large weight-bearing joints, such as the hips and knees. Also called degenerative joint disease.
Diabetes: Refers to diabetes mellitus or, less often, to diabetes insipidus . Diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus share the name "diabetes" because they are both conditions characterized by excessive urination (polyuria). See the entire definition of Diabetes
Diagnosis:1 The nature of a disease ; the identification of an illness. 2 A conclusion or decision reached by diagnosis. The diagnosis is rabies . 3 The identification of any problem. The diagnosis was a plugged IV. See the entire definition of Diagnosis
Diarrhea : A familiar phenomenon with unusually frequent or unusually liquid bowel movements, excessive watery evacuations of fecal material. The opposite of constipation . The word "diarrhea" with its odd spelling is a near steal from the Greek "diarrhoia" meaning "a flowing through." Plato and Aristotle may have had diarrhoia while today we have diarrhea. There are myriad infectious and noninfectious causes of diarrhea. See the entire definition of Diarrhea
Disease: Illness or sickness often characterized by typical patient problems (symptoms) and physical findings (signs). Disruption sequence: The events that occur when a fetus that is developing normally is subjected to a destructive agent such as the rubella (German measles) virus.
Doxycycline : Brand name: Vibramycin. A synthetic broad-spectrum antibiotic derived from tetracycline . Doxycycline is used for many different types of infections, including respiratory tract infections due to Hemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, or Mycoplasma pneumoniae. It is also used for the treatment of nongonococcal urethritis (due to Ureaplasma), Rocky Mountain spotted fever, typhus, chancroid, cholera , brucellosis, syphilis, and acne . See the entire definition of Doxycycline
Family:1. A group of individuals related by blood or marriage or by a feeling of closeness. 2. A biological classification of related plants or animals that is a division below the order and above the genus. 3. A group of genes related in structure and in function that descended from an ancestral gene. 4. A group of gene products similarly related in structure and function and of shared genetic descent. 5. Parents and their children. The most fundamental social group in humans.
FDA: The Food and Drug Administration, an agency within the U.S. Public Health Service, which is a part of the Department of Health and Human Services. See the entire definition of FDA
Feet: The plural of foot, both an anatomic structure and a unit of measure. See the entire definition of Feet
Fissure: A cleft or groove. A fissure can be normal or abnormal. See the entire definition of Fissure
Gastrointestinal: Adjective referring collectively to the stomach and small and large intestines. See the entire definition of Gastrointestinal
Genetic: Having to do with genes and genetic information.
Glucosamine: A molecule derived from the sugar glucose by the addition of an amino (NH2) group, glucosamine is a component of a number of structures including the blood group substances and cartilage. See the entire definition of Glucosamine
Gout: Condition characterized by abnormally elevated levels of uric acid in the blood, recurring attacks of joint inflammation (arthritis), deposits of hard lumps of uric acid in and around the joints, and decreased kidney function and kidney stones. Uric acid is a breakdown product of purines, that are part of many foods we eat. The tendency to develop gout and elevated blood uric acid level (hyperuricemia) is often inherited and can be promoted by obesity, weight gain, alcohol intake, high blood pressure, abnormal kidney function, and drugs. The most reliable diagnostic test for gout is the identification of crystals in joints, body fluids and tissues.
Growth hormone: A hormone made in the pituitary gland that stimulates the release of another hormone called somatomedin by the liver, thereby causing growth. Also known as somatotropin. Growth hormone is produced by the anterior pituitary gland, the front section of the gland, and is a polypeptide that consists of 191 amino acids . Growth hormone is given to children with pituitary dwarfism (short stature due to underfunction of the anterior pituitary) to help them grow. Excessive growth hormone production in children can lead to gigantism, and in adults it can lead to acromegaly. See the entire definition of Growth hormone
Health: As officially defined by the World Health Organization, a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Heredity: Genetic transmission from parent to child.
Hormone: A chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs. See the entire definition of Hormone
Hyaluronic acid: A viscous slippery substance that lubricates the joints, maintains the shape of the eyeballs, and is a key component of connective tissue. On a more technical level, hyaluric acid is an glycosaminoglycan (formerly called a mucopolysaccharide), a long unbranched polysaccharide (complex sugar), composed of repeating dimeric units of glucuronic acid and N acetyl glucosamine.
Ibuprofen: A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used to treat pain, swelling, and fever. Common brand names for Ibuprofen include Advil, Motrin, and Nuprin.
Incidence: The frequency with which something, such as a disease, appears in a particular population or area. In disease epidemiology, the incidence is the number of newly diagnosed cases during a specific time period. The incidence is distinct from the prevalence which refers to the number of cases alive on a certain date. See the entire definition of Incidence
Infection: The growth of a parasitic organism within the body. (A parasitic organism is one that lives on or in another organism and draws its nourishment therefrom.) A person with an infection has another organism (a "germ") growing within him, drawing its nourishment from the person. See the entire definition of Infection
Inflammation: A basic way in which the body reacts to infection , irritation or other injury, the key feature being redness, warmth, swelling and pain . Inflammation is now recognized as a type of nonspecific immune response . See the entire definition of Inflammation
Injury: Harm or hurt. The term "injury" may be applied in medicine to damage inflicted upon oneself as in a hamstring injury or by an external agent on as in a cold injury. The injury may be accidental or deliberate, as with a needlestick injury. The term "injury" may be synonymous (depending on the context) with a wound or with trauma.
Intervention: The act of intervening, interfering or interceding with the intent of modifying the outcome. In medicine, an intervention is usually undertaken to help treat or cure a condition. For example, early intervention may help children with autism to speak. "Acupuncture as a therapeutic intervention is widely practiced in the United States," according to the National Institutes of Health. From the Latin intervenire, to come between.
Joint: A joint is the area where two bones are attached for the purpose of motion of body parts. A joint is usually formed of fibrous connective tissue and cartilage. An articulation or an arthrosis is the same as a joint. See the entire definition of Joint
Knee: The knee is a joint which has three parts. The thigh bone (the femur) meets the large shin bone (the tibia) to form the main knee joint. This joint has an inner (medial) and an outer (lateral) compartment. The kneecap (the patella) joins the femur to form a third joint, called the patellofemoral joint. The patella protects the front of the knee joint. See the entire definition of Knee
Laboratory: A place for doing tests and research procedures and preparing chemicals, etc. Although "laboratory" looks very like the Latin "laboratorium" (a place to labor, a work place), the word "laboratory" came from the Latin "elaborare" (to work out, as a problem, and with great pains), as evidenced by the Old English spelling "elaboratory" designating "a place where learned effort was applied to the solution of scientific problems." See the entire definition of Laboratory
Lumbar: Referring to the 5 lumbar vertebrae which are situated below the thoracic vertebrae and above the sacral vertebrae in the spinal column. The 5 lumbar vertebrae are represented by the symbols L1 through L5. There are correspondingly 5 lumbar nerves.
Lupus: A chronic inflammatory condition caused by an autoimmune disease. An autoimmune disease occurs when the body's tissues are attacked by its own immune system. Patients with lupus have unusual antibodies in their blood that are targeted against their own body tissues. See the entire definition of Lupus
Medication:1. A drug or medicine. 2. The administration of a drug or medicine. (Note that "medication" does not have the dangerous double meaning of "drug.")
Mouth:1. The upper opening of the digestive tract, beginning with the lips and containing the teeth, gums, and tongue. Foodstuffs are broken down mechanically in the mouth by chewing and saliva is added as a lubricant. Saliva contains amylase, an enzyme that digests starch. 2. Any opening or aperture in the body. The mouth in both senses of the word is also called the os, the Latin word for an opening, or mouth. The o in os is pronounced as in hope. The genitive form of os is oris from which comes the word oral.
Muscular: Having to do with the muscles. Also, endowed with above average muscle development. Muscular system refers to all of the muscles of the body collectively.
Naproxen : A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used for the management of mild to moderate pain, fever, and inflammation . Naproxen blocks the enzyme cyclooxygenase that makes prostaglandins, resulting in lower concentrations of prostaglandins. As a consequence, inflammation, pain and fever are reduced. Brand names for naproxen include Anaprox, Naprelan, Naprosyn, and Aleve. See the entire definition of Naproxen
Neck: The part of the body joining the head to the shoulders. Also, any narrow or constricted part of a bone or organ that joins its parts as, for example, the neck of the femur bone. See the entire definition of Neck
Node: Literally a knot, a node is a collection of tissue. For example a lymph node, is a collection of lymphoid tissue. A nodule is a small node, a little collection of tissue. See the entire definition of Node
Obesity: The state of being well above one's normal weight. See the entire definition of Obesity
Organ: A relatively independent part of the body that carries out one or more special functions. The organs of the human body include the eye, ear, heart, lungs, and liver.
Osteoarthritis: A type of arthritis caused by inflammation, breakdown, and eventual loss of cartilage in the joints. Also known as degenerative arthritis.
Osteotomy: Taking out part or all of a bone, or cutting into or through bone.
Overweight: The term "overweight" is used in two different ways. In one sense it is a way of saying imprecisely that someone is heavy. The other sense of "overweight" is more precise and designates a state between normal weight and obesity . See the entire definition of Overweight
Pain: An unpleasant sensation that can range from mild, localized discomfort to agony. Pain has both physical and emotional components. The physical part of pain results from nerve stimulation. Pain may be contained to a discrete area, as in an injury, or it can be more diffuse, as in disorders like fibromyalgia . Pain is mediated by specific nerve fibers that carry the pain impulses to the brain where their conscious appreciation may be modified by many factors. See the entire definition of Pain
Prescription: A physician's order for the preparation and administration of a drug or device for a patient. A prescription has several parts. They include the superscription or heading with the symbol "R" or "Rx", which stands for the word recipe (meaning, in Latin, to take); the inscription, which contains the names and quantities of the ingredients; the subscription or directions for compounding the drug; and the signature which is often preceded by the sign "s" standing for signa (Latin for mark), giving the directions to be marked on the container.
Primary: First or foremost in time or development. The primary teeth (the baby teeth) are those that come first. Primary may also refer to symptoms or a disease to which others are secondary. See the entire definition of Primary
Progressive: Increasing in scope or severity. Advancing. Going forward. In medicine, a disease that is progressive is going from bad to worse. See the entire definition of Progressive
Protein: A large molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the DNA coding for the protein. See the entire definition of Protein
Pseudogout: Inflammation of the joints caused by deposits of calcium pyrophosphate crystals, resulting in arthritis, most commonly of the knees, wrists, shoulders, hips, and ankles, usually affecting only one or a few joints at a time. True gout is due to a different type of crystal formed by the precipitation of uric acid.
Radioactive: Emitting energy waves due to decaying atomic nuclei. Radioactive substances are used in medicine as tracers for diagnosis, and in treatment to kill cancerous cells. See the entire definition of Radioactive
Range: In medicine and statistics, the difference between the lowest and highest numerical values. For example, if five premature infants are born weighing two, three, four, four, and five pounds respectively, the range of their birth weights is two to five pounds.
Range of motion: The range through which a joint can be moved, usually its range of flexion and extension. Due to an injury, the knee may for example lack 10 degrees of full extension. See the entire definition of Range of motion
Recurrent: Back again. A recurrent fever is a fever that has returned after an intermission: a recrudescent fever.
Rest:1. Repose. Relaxation. 2. A fragment of embryonic tissue that has been retained after the period of embryonic development. Also called an embryonic rest.
Rheumatologist: A specialist in the non-surgical treatment of rheumatic illnesses, especially arthritis . See the entire definition of Rheumatologist
Risk factor: Something that increases a person's chances of developing a disease.
Side effects: Problems that occur when treatment goes beyond the desired effect. Or problems that occur in addition to the desired therapeutic effect. See the entire definition of Side effects
Skin: The skin is the body's outer covering. It protects us against heat and light, injury, and infection. It regulates body temperature and stores water, fat, and vitamin D. Weighing about 6 pounds, the skin is the body's largest organ. It is made up of two main layers; the outer epidermis and the inner dermis.
Sore:1. (adjective) A popular term for painful. I have sore fingers from typing dictionary terms. She has a sore throat . 2. (noun) A nondescript term for nearly any lesion of the skin or mucous membranes. He has a number of sores in his mouth.
Spasm: A brief, automatic jerking movement. A muscle spasm can be quite painful, with the muscle clenching tightly. A spasm of the coronary artery can cause angina. Spasms in various types of tissue may be caused by stress, medication, over-exercise, or other factors.
Spine: 1) The column of bone known as the vertebral column, which surrounds and protects the spinal cord. The spine can be categorized according to level of the body: i.e., cervical spine (neck), thoracic spine (upper and middle back), and lumbar spine (lower back). See also vertebral column. 2) Any short prominence of bone. The spines of the vertebrae protrude at the base of the back of the neck and in the middle of the back. These spines protect the spinal cord from injury from behind.
Stomach:1. The sac-shaped digestive organ that is located in the upper abdomen, under the ribs. The upper part of the stomach connects to the esophagus, and the lower part leads into the small intestine. See the entire definition of Stomach
Stress: Forces from the outside world impinging on the individual. Stress is a normal part of life that can help us learn and grow. Conversely, stress can cause us significant problems. See the entire definition of Stress
Substance:1. Material with particular features, as a pressor substance. 2. The material that makes up an organ or structure. Also known in medicine as the substantia. 3. A psychoactive drug as, for example, in substance abuse.
Surgery: The word "surgery" has multiple meanings. It is the branch of medicine concerned with diseases and conditions which require or are amenable to operative procedures. Surgery is the work done by a surgeon. By analogy, the work of an editor wielding his pen as a scalpel is s form of surgery. A surgery in England (and some other countries) is a physician's or dentist's office. See the entire definition of Surgery
Symptom: Any subjective evidence of disease. Anxiety, lower back pain, and fatigue are all symptoms. They are sensations only the patient can perceive. In contrast, a sign is objective evidence of disease. A bloody nose is a sign. It is evident to the patient, doctor, nurse and other observers.
Systemic: Affecting the entire body. A systemic disease such as diabetes can affect the whole body. Systemic chemotherapy employs drugs that travel through the bloodstream and reach and affect cells all over the body. See the entire definition of Systemic
Tetracycline: A family of broad-spectrum antibiotics effective against a remarkably wide variety of organisms. Bacteria susceptible to teracycline include H. flu (Hemophilus influenzae), strep (Streptococcus pneumoniae), Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia psittaci, Chlamydia trachomatis , and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (the cause of gonorrhea ). Tetracycline is also used to treat nongonococcal urethritis (due to Ureaplasma), Rocky mountain spotted fever , typhus , chancroid , cholera , brucellosis , anthrax , and syphilis . It is used in combination with other medications to treat Helicobacter pylori , the bacteria associated with ulcers of the stomach and duodenum . See the entire definition of Tetracycline
Tissue: A tissue in medicine is not like a piece of tissue paper. It is a broad term that is applied to any group of cells that perform specific functions. A tissue in medicine need not form a layer. Thus,
The bone marrow is a tissue;
Connective tissue consists of cells that make up fibers in the framework supporting other body tissues; and
Lymphoid tissue is the part of the body's immune system that helps protect it from bacteria and other foreign entities.
Topical: Pertaining to a particular surface area. A topical agent is applied to a certain area of the skin and is intended to affect only the area to which it is applied. Whether its effects are indeed limited to that area depends upon whether the agent stays where it is put or is absorbed into the blood stream. See the entire definition of Topical
Total hip replacement : Surgery in which the diseased ball and socket of the hip joint are completely removed and replaced with artificial materials. A metal ball with a stem (a prosthesis ) is inserted into the femur ( thigh bone ) and an artificial plastic cup socket is placed in the acetabulum (a "cup-shaped" part of the pelvis . See the entire definition of Total hip replacement
Toxicity: The degree to which a substance can harm humans or animals. See the entire definition of Toxicity
Trauma: Any injury , whether physically or emotionally inflicted. "Trauma" has both a medical and a psychiatric definition. Medically, "trauma" refers to a serious or critical bodily injury, wound, or shock . This definition is often associated with trauma medicine practiced in emergency rooms and represents a popular view of the term. In psychiatry , "trauma" has assumed a different meaning and refers to an experience that is emotionally painful, distressful, or shocking, which often results in lasting mental and physical effects. See the entire definition of Trauma
Ulcer: An area of tissue erosion, for example, of the skin or lining of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Due to the erosion, an ulcer is concave. It is always depressed below the level of the surrounding tissue. See the entire definition of Ulcer
Uric acid: A breakdown product of purines that are part of many foods. In gout, there are frequently, but not always, elevated levels of uric acid in the blood (hyperuricemia). However, only a small portion of those with hyperuricemia will develop gout.
X-ray:1. High-energy radiation with waves shorter than those of visible light. X-rays possess the properties of penetrating most substances (to varying extents), of acting on a photographic film or plate (permitting radiography), and of causing a fluorescent screen to give off light (permitting fluoroscopy). In low doses X-rays are used for making images that help to diagnose disease, and in high doses to treat cancer . Formerly called a Roentgen ray. 2. An image obtained by means of X-rays. See the entire definition of X-ray
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The sacroiliac (SI) joints are formed by the connection of the sacrum and the
right and left iliac bones. The sacrum is the triangular-shaped bone in the
lower portion of the spine, below the lumbar spine. While most of the bones
(vertebrae) of the spine are mobile, the sacrum is made up of five vertebrae
that are fused together and do not move. The iliac bones are the two large bones
that make up the pelvis. As a result, the SI joints connect the spine to the
pelvis. The sacrum and the iliac bones (ileum) are held together by a collection
of strong ligaments. There is relatively little motion at the SI joints. There
are normally less than 4 degrees of rotation and 2 mm of translation at these
joints. Most of the motion in the area of the pelvis occurs either at the hips
or the lumbar spine. These joints do need to support the entire weight of the
upper body when we are erect, which places a large amount of stress ...
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