Dr. Ogbru received his Doctorate in Pharmacy from the University of the Pacific School of Pharmacy in 1995. He completed a Pharmacy Practice Residency at the University of Arizona/University Medical Center in 1996. He was a Professor of Pharmacy Practice and a Regional Clerkship Coordinator for the University of the Pacific School of Pharmacy from 1996-99.
Jay W. Marks, MD, is a board-certified internist and gastroenterologist. He graduated from Yale University School of Medicine and trained in internal medicine and gastroenterology at UCLA/Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles.
DRUG CLASS AND MECHANISM: Codeine is a weak narcotic pain-reliever and
cough suppressant similar to morphine and hydrocodone. In fact, a small amount
of codeine is converted to morphine in the body. The precise mechanism of action
of codeine is not known; however, like morphine, codeine binds to receptors in
the brain (opioid receptors) that are important for transmitting the sensation
of pain throughout the body and brain. Codeine increases tolerance to pain,
decreasing discomfort, but the pain still is apparent to the patient. In
addition to reducing pain, codeine also causes sedation drowsiness and
depresses breathing. Codeine frequently is combined with
acetaminophen (Tylenol)
or aspirin for more effective
pain relief.
STORAGE: Codeine should be stored between 15 to 30 C (59 to 86 F).
PRESCRIBED FOR: Codeine is used for the relief of mild to moderately
severe pain and for suppressing cough.
DOSING: The usual adult dose of codeine is 15-60 mg every 4-6 hours.
DRUG INTERACTIONS: Codeine can impair thinking and physical abilities
required for driving or operating machinery. Alcohol and other sedatives such as
alprazolam (Xanax) can produce further brain impairment and even confusion when
combined with codeine. Therefore, alcohol and other sedatives should be limited
when taking codeine.
PREGNANCY: Safety during
pregnancy has not been established. Codeine
is generally avoided in pregnancy because it may cause fetal physical
dependence, withdrawal and growth retardation.
NURSING MOTHERS: Small amounts of codeine are secreted in
breast-milk,
but the risk of adverse events in the infant is small.
SIDE EFFECTS: The most frequent side effects of codeine include
lightheadedness, dizziness, nausea,
vomiting, shortness of breath, and sedation.
Other side effects include allergic reactions, constipation, abdominal pain,
rash and itching. Codeine is habit forming. Mental and physical dependence can
occur but are unlikely when used for short-term pain relief. If codeine is
suddenly withdrawn after prolonged use, symptoms of withdrawal may develop. The
dose of codeine should be reduced gradually in order to avoid withdrawal
symptoms.
Liver disease can be cause by a variety of things including infection (hepatitis), diseases such as gallstones, high cholesterol or triglycerides, blood flow obstruction to the liver, and toxins (medications and chemicals). Symptoms of liver disease depends upon the cause; however, common symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, upper right abdominal pain, and jaundice. Treatment depends upon the cause of the liver disease.
Chronic cough is a cough that does not go away and is generally a symptom of another disorder such as asthma, allergic rhinitis, sinus infection, cigarette smoking, GERD, postnasal drip, bronchitis, pneumonia, medications, and less frequently tumors or other lung disease. Treatment of chronic cough is dependant upon the cause.
Dengue fever is contracted from the bite of a striped Aedes aegypti mosquito. Symptoms of dengue include headache, fever, exhaustion, severe joint and muscle pain, rash, and swollen glands. Since dengue is caused by a virus, there is no specific medicine to treat it. Treatment instead focuses on relieving the symptoms.
Absecessed tooth is a painful infection at the root of a tooth or between the gum and a tooth, most commonly caused by severe tooth decay. Symptoms of abscessed tooth include fever, painful chewing, sensitivity in the teeth, bitter taste in the mouth, and swollen neck glands.
Although a fever technically is any body temperature above the normal of 98.6 degrees F. (37 degrees C.), in practice a person is usually not considered to have a significant fever until the temperature is above 100.4 degrees F (38 degrees C.). Fever is part of the body's own disease-fighting arsenal: rising body temperatures apparently are capable of killing off many disease- producing organisms.
Drug addiction is a chronic disease that causes drug-seeking behavior and drug use despite negative consequences to the user and those around him. Though the initial decision to use drugs is voluntary, changes in the brain caused by repeated drug abuse can affect a person's self-control and ability to make the right decisions and increase the urge to take drugs. Drug abuse and addiction are preventable.
Before treating a cold, the flu, or allergies with over-the-counter (OTC) medications, it's important to know what's causing the symptoms, which symptoms one wishes to relieve, and the active ingredients in the OTC product. Taking products that only contain the medications needed for relieving your symptoms prevents ingestion of unnecessary medications and reduces the chances of side effects.
Wisdom teeth are the third set of molars that people get in their late teens or early twenties. Impacted wisdom teeth that only partially erupt allows for an opening for bacteria to enter around the tooth and cause an infection, which results in pain, swelling, jaw stiffness, and general illness. Before your wisdom teeth are pulled, the teeth and the surrounding tissue will be numbed with a local anesthetic. Recovery from wisdom tooth removal depends upon the difficulty of the extraction.
The anterior cruciate ligament helps to prevent the top and bottom of the knee from sliding back and forth. Symptoms and signs of a torn ACL include knee pain and swelling. Treatment of a torn ACL depends upon the health of the patient and the patient's expectations and willingness to undertake extensive physical therapy. Rehabilitation after surgical repair of an ACL tear may take more than nine months.
Pain management and treatment can be simple or complex, according to its cause. There are two basic types of pain, nociceptive pain and neuropathic pain. Some causes of neuropathic pain includes: complex regional pain syndrome, interstitial cystitis, and irritable bowel syndrome. There are a variety of methods to treat chronic pain, which are dependant on the type of pain experienced.
The shoulder is the most often dislocated joint in the body due to its mobility. Dislocation occurs when the head of the humerus is dislocated from its socket. Symptoms and signs of a shoulder dislocation include nausea and vomiting, lightheadedness, weakness, and sweating. There are various methods of reducing a dislocation and returning the humeral head to its normal place. The method for reduction of a shoulder dislocation depends upon the type of dislocation, the patient, the situation, and the clinician's experience. Intravenous narcotics and muscle relaxants are often administered to relax the muscles and relieve pain.
Chronic pain is pain (an unpleasant sense of discomfort) that persists or progresses over a long period of time. In contrast to acute pain that arises suddenly in response to a specific injury and is usually treatable, chronic pain persists over time and is often resistant to medical treatments.
Drugs commonly abused by teens include tobacco products, marijuana, cold medications, inhalants, depressants, stimulants, narcotics, hallucinogens, PCP, ketamine, Ecstasy, and anabolic steroids. Some of the symptoms and warning signs of teen drug abuse include reddened whites of eyes, paranoia, sleepiness, excessive happiness, seizures, memory loss, increased appetite, discolored fingertips, lips or teeth, and irritability. Treatment of drug addiction may involve a combination of medication, individual, and familial interventions.
Natural menopause is the permanent ending of menstruation that is not brought on by any type of medical treatment. For women undergoing natural menopause, the process is described in three stages: perimenopause, menopause, and postmenopause.
However, not all women undergo natural menopause. Some women experience induced menopause as a result of surgery or medical treatments, such as chemotherapy and pelvic radiation therapy.
The appendix is a closed-ended, narrow
tube that attaches to the cecum (the
first part of the colon) like a worm. (The anatomical name for the appendix,
vermiform appendix, means worm-like appendage.) The inner lining of the appendix
produces a small amount of mucus that flows through the
appendix and into the cecum. The wall of the appendix contains lymphatic tissue
that is part of the
immune system for making antibodies.
Like the rest of the colon, the wall of the appendix also contains a layer of
muscle.
What is appendicitis?
Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix. It is thought that appendicitis
begins when the opening from the appendix into the cecum becomes blocked. The
blockage may be due to a build-up of thick mucus within the appendix or to stool that
enters the appendix from the cecum. The mucus or stool hardens, becomes
rock-like, and blocks the opening. This rock is called a fecalith (l...
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