Jay W. Marks, MD, is a board-certified internist and gastroenterologist. He graduated from Yale University School of Medicine and trained in internal medicine and gastroenterology at UCLA/Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles.
The most common standard by which treatments for cancer or related disorders, such as dysplasia, are measured is by the 5-year outcome. For example, we just mentioned the 80% five year survival rate for esophageal cancers that were found by surveillance in Barrett's and then treated by esophagectomy (surgical removal of the esophagus).
The finding of high grade dysplasia in Barrett's may mean that cancer already is present. For this reason, when high grade dysplasia is found, the next step is to repeat the endoscopy and take more biopsies. For this purpose, the recommendation is to take four biopsies (one from each quadrant) every one centimeter rather than every two centimeters. If the biopsy findings again reveal just high grade dysplasia, there are a number of management options, including esophagectomy, continued biopsy surveillance, and experimental approaches.
Endoscopic ultrasound
Endoscopic ultrasound is invaluable in the staging of early
cancers to determine the depth of their penetration into surrounding tissue. It
also can be used to determine if dysplastic tissue has invaded the surrounding
tissue, that is, has become cancerous. This technique uses endoscopes as
dedicated ultrasound devices. In other words, these endoscopes are used only for
doing endoscopic ultrasound. These instruments can literally see through the
wall of the esophagus with much greater accuracy than, for example, a computerized tomographic (CT)
scan. Endoscopic ultrasound is available in most centers that specialize in Barrett's esophagus and/or esophageal cancer.
Esophagectomy
The gold standard for the management of high grade dysplasia is esophagectomy. Esophagectomy involves total removal of the esophagus except for a very short cuff of esophagus at its upper end. The esophagus is replaced with a segment of colon, or stomach is brought up under the breastbone and attached to the remaining cuff of the esophagus.
Patients with Barrett's awaiting an esophagectomy should seek an experienced surgeon with a good track record. They should interview the surgeon about his/her results. There is no validated or magic annual number of operations that provides enough surgical experience, but some surgeons believe it should be at least 20 per year. What's important is not just the experience with the actual surgery, but also the experience of the team involved in the pre and post operative care.
The operative death rate (mortality) associated with esophagectomy for high grade dysplasia and early cancer is near 0%. However, in the postoperative period, a host of complications (operative morbidity) may occur, most of which are transient (self-limited). These complications may include delayed gastric emptying of food, temporary hoarseness, and strictures of the esophagus (narrowed areas caused by scarring).
Follow-up biopsy surveillance, and esophagectomy ONLY if cancer is found
Some patients with high grade dysplasia opt to have a
close follow-up. In these individuals, endoscopic biopsy surveillance is done
initially every three months for at least a year and then less often (for exmple,
every four to six months). The understanding is that surgery (esophagectomy)
will be done if carcinoma were found during the course of the follow-up. This
has not been a universally popular approach except at a few centers. It requires
a commitment on the part of the endoscopist to do meticulous surveillance
biopsies frequently. It also requires that the patient be reconciled with the
frequent follow-up procedures and with the attendant uncertainty for what the future holds.
Most sore throats are caused by viruses or mechanical causes (such as mouth breathing) and can be treated successfully at home. However, a person should be seen by a health care professional if they have a sore throat that has a rapid onset, and is associated with a fever or tenderness of the front of the neck; a sore throat that causes the person to have difficulty swallowing (not just pain swallowing) or breathing; or if a sore throat lasts for more than a week.
GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease) is a condition in which the acidified liquid
contents of the stomach backs up into the esophagus. The symptoms of uncomplicated GERD are heartburn,
regurgitation, and nausea. Effective treatment is available for most patients with GERD.
Bronchitis is a disease of the respiratory system in which the bronchial passages become inflamed. There are two types of bronchitis, acute and chronic. Symptoms of acute bronchitis include frequent cough with mucus, lack of energy, wheezing, and possible fever. Treatment may require medication such as bronchial inhalers and predinsone. Supportive treatment is focused on relieving the symptoms with fever reducers, cough suppressants, and rest. Treatment may be more aggressive in patients with pre-existing conditions such as empyema, COPD, or cigarette smoking.
A hiatal hernia is an anatomical abnormality in which part of the stomach protrudes through the diaphragm and up into the chest. Causes of hiatal hernia are a larger than normal esophageal hiatus. There are two types of hiatal hernias, sliding, or para-esophageal. When symptoms of hiatal hernia appear, they are similar to GERD symptoms. Hiatal hernia treatment is generally surgery.
Chronic cough is a cough that does not go away and is generally a symptom of another disorder such as asthma, allergic rhinitis, sinus infection, cigarette smoking, GERD, postnasal drip, bronchitis, pneumonia, medications, and less frequently tumors or other lung disease. Treatment of chronic cough is dependant upon the cause.
Esophageal cancer is a disease in which malignant cells form in the esophagus. Risk factors of cancer of the esophagus include smoking, heavy alcohol use, Barrett's esophagus, being male and being over age 60. Severe weight loss, vomiting, hoarseness, coughing up blood, painful swallowing, and pain in the throat or back are symptoms. Treatment depends upon the size, location and staging of the cancer and the health of the patient.
Stool color is generally brown. When stool color changes, often, an individual becomes concerned. The presence of the bilirubin in bile is generally responsible for stool color. Bilirubin concentration can vary bile color from light yellow to almost black in color. Changes in bilirubin can cause stool to turn green, gray, or clay-like in color. Intestinal bleeding may turn stool black, tarry, red, maroon, or smelly stool. Medication and food may also affect stool color.
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a bacterium that causes chronic inflammation (gastritis) of the inner lining of the stomach in humans. This bacteria also is the most common cause of ulcers worldwide.
Eosinophilic esophagitis is an inflammation of the esophagus. Eosinophilic esophagitis has many causes including acid reflux, heartburn, viruses, medications that become stuck in the esophagus, allergy, asthma, hay fever, allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis. Eosinophilic esophagitis symptoms include difficulty swallowing food, abdominal pain, chest pain, and heartburn.
Dysphagia or difficulty in swallowing, swallowing problems. Dysphagia is due to problems in nerve or muscle control. It is common, for example, after a stroke. Dysphagia compromises nutrition and hydration and may lead to aspiration pneumonia and dehydration.
Esophagitis is caused by an infection or irritation of the esophagus. Infections that cause esophagitis include candida yeast infection of the esophagus as well as herpes.
Gastritis is an inflammation of the stomach lining. Causes of gastritis include drinking too much alcohol, medications such as NSAIDs, ibuprofen, aspirin, H. pylori infection, severe infections, burns, anemia, and autoimmune disorders. Gastritis is diagnosed with endoscopy, blood tests, or stool tests. Treatment depends upon the cause of gastritis.
Smoking is an addiction. More than 430,000 deaths occur each year in the U.S. from smoking related illnesses. Secondhand smoke or "passive smoke" also harm family members, coworkers, and others around smokers. There are a number of techniques available to assist people who want to quit smoking.
Hoarseness (abnormal deep, harsh, raspy voice) is caused by a variety of conditions in which the larynx (voice box and vocal chords) are irritated or injured. Examples of causes of hoarseness include: laryngitis, straining the vocal cords by yelling or screaming, infections, GERD, allergies, and more. Treatment of hoarseness depends on the cause.
Schatzki (Schatzki's) ring, is a narrow ring of tissue located just above the junction of the esophagus and stomach. The cause of Schatzki ring is not clearly known, however, some doctors believe they are caused by long term acid reflux. The symptoms of a Schatzki ring is primarily poorly chewed food that stays in chunks becoming stuck in the esophagus. Diagnosis of Schatzki's ring is barium x-ray or endoscopy. Treatment is generally a procedure to stretch or fracture the rings.
Though it's difficult to say why some people develop cancer while others don't, research shows that certain risk factors increase a person's odds of developing cancer. These risk factors include growing older, family history of cancer, diet, alcohol and tobacco use, and exposure to sunlight, ionizing radiation, certain chemicals, and some viruses and bacteria.
Heartburn is a burning sensation experienced from acid reflux (GERD). Symptoms of heartburn include chest pain, burning in the throat, difficulty swallowing, the feeling of food sticking in the throat, and a burning feeling in the chest. Causes of heartburn include dietary habits, lifestyle habits, and medical causes. Treatments for heartburn include lifestyle changes, OTC medication, prescription medication, and surgery.
Acid backing up into the larynx (voice box), it causes reflux laryngitis. Irritation of the lining of the esophagus, larynx, and throat can lead to esophagitis, sinusitis, strictures, hoarseness, throat clearing, swallowing problems, asthma, chronic cough, and more. Typical symptoms of reflux laryngitis include heartburn, hoarseness, or a sensation of a foreign body in the throat. Reflux laryngitis can be treated with OTC medication, prescription medication, and lifestyle changes.
Disease prevention in men includes routine screening tests that are part of basic prevention medicine. Take an active role in your own health care and discuss screening tests with your doctor early in life. Age of screening and timing of screening depends upon the condition being assessed.
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